1)
The Smartest Man Is Hard to
Find
a)
$265 million industry in 2008:
SharpBrainsReport (2009).
2)
The Man Who Remembered Too Much
a)
80 percent of what they'd seen:
LionelStanding (1973), "Learning 10 000 Pictures",
QuaterlyJournalOfExperimentalPsychology 25, 207-22.
b)
2 500 images: TimothyFBrady,
TaliaKonkle, et al. *2008), "Visual LongTerm Memory Has a Massive Storage Capacity
for Object Details", ProceedingsOfTheNationalAcademyOfSciences 105, no.
38, 14325-29.
c)
"details could eventually
be recovered": ElizabethLoftus and GeoffreyLoftus (1980), "On the Permanence
of Stored Information in the Human Brain," AmericanPsychologist 35, no. 5,
409-20.
d)
Wagnaar came to believe the
same thing: WillemAWagenaar (1986),
"MyMemory.AStudyOfAutobiographicalMemoryOverSixYears," CognitivePsychology
18, 225-52.
e)
only one case of photographic
memory has ever been described in the scientific literature: Photographic
memory is often confused with another bizarre, but real, perceptual phenomenon
called eideticmemory, which occurs in 2 to 15 percent of children, and very
rarely in adults. An eidetic image is essentially a vivid afterimage that
lingers in the mind's eye for up to a few minutes before fading away. Children
with eidetic memory never have anything close to perfect recall, and they
typically aren't able to visualise anything as detailed as a body of text. In
these individuals, visual imagery simply fades more slowly.
f)
a paper in Nature: CFStromeyer
and JPsotka 1970, "The Detailed Texture of Eidetic Images," Nature
225, 346-49
g)
none of them could pull of
Elizabeth's nifty trick: JOMerritt 1979, "None in a Million: Results of
Mass Screening for Eidetic Ability," Behavioural and Brain Sciences 2, 612
h)
"other people having
photographic memory": If anyone alive today has a claim to photographic
memory, it's a british savant named StephenWiltshire, who has been called the
"human camera" for his ability to create sketches of a scene after
looking at it for just a few seconds. But even he doesn't have a truly
photographic memory, I learned. His mind doesn't work like a xerox machine. He
takes liberties. And curiously, his caemralike abilities extend only to drawing
certain kinds of objects and scenes, namely architecture and cars. He can't, say,
for example, look at a page of the dictionary and then instantly recall what
was on it. In every case, except Elizabeth's where someone has claimed to have
a photographic memory, there has always been another explanation.
i)
"none of them ever
attained any prominence in the scholarly world": GeorgeMStratton 1917,
"The Mnemonic Feat of the 'Shass Pollak,'" PsychologicalReview 24,
244-47
j)
a pattern of connections
between those neurons: Recently, a paper in the journal BrainAndMind attempted
to estimate the capacity of the human brain using a model that treats a memory
as something stored not in individual neurons but rather in the connections
between neurons. The authors estimated that the human brain can store 10
8432square bits of information. By contrast, it's said that there are somewhere
on the order of 10 78square atoms in the observable universe.
k)
physically altered the gross
structure of their brains: EAMaguire et al. 2000, "NavigationRelated
Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi Drivers," PNAS 97, 84398-403
l)
not a single significant
structural diffence turned up: EAMaguire, et al 2003, "Routes to
Remembering: The Brains Behind Superior Memory," NatureNeuroscience 6
no.1, 90-95
m) wouldn't seem to make any sense: If the mental athletes were also
using navigational skills, why didn't they have enlarged hippocampuses, like
the taxi drivers? They likely answer is that mental athletes simply don't use
their navigational abilities nearly as much as taxi drivers.
n)
"Baker/baker
paradox": GCohen 1990, "Why Is It Difficult to Put Names to Faces?:
BritishJournalOfPsychology 81, 287-97
3)
The Expert Expert
a)
all the hard work of putting
food on our tables: I'm speaking here about egg-laying chickens, which are
distinct from broiler chickens bred to produce meat.
b)
"Exceptional Memorisers:
Made, Not Born": KAndersEricsson 2003, "Exceptional Memorisers: Made,
Not Born," TrendsInCognitiveSciences 7, no.6, 233-35
c)
volleyball defenders: Much of
this research is captured in
TheCambridgeHandbookOfExpertiseAndExpertPerformance, edited by KAndersEricsson,
NeilCharness, PaulJFeltovich, and RobertRHoffman.
d)
several opponets at once,
entirely in their heads: During the first half of the twentieth century,
playing simultaneous games of blindfolded chess against multiple opponents
became a fetishised skill in the chess world. In 1947, an Argentinian grand
master named MiguelNajdorf set a record by playing 45 simultaneous games in his
mind. It took him 23+1/2 hours, and he finished with a reocrd of 39 wins, four
losses, and two draws, and then was unable to fall asleep for three straight
days and nights afterward. (According to chess lore, simultaneous blindfolded
chess was once banned in Russia due to the mental health risks.)
4)
The Most Forgetful Man in the
World
a)
lab technian called EP:
LSteffanaci et al. 2000, "Profound Amnesia After Damage to the Medical
Temporal Lobe: A Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Profile of Patient
EP" JournalOfNeuroscience 20, no.18, 7024-36
5)
The Memory Palace
a)
textbook called the Rhetorica
ad herennium: So named after GaiusHerennius, the book's patron
b)
"This book is our
bible": TheLoebClassicalLibrary English/Latin edition of the book has the
roman statesman and philosopher Cicero's named printed on its spine, albeit
inside a pair of brackets. Until at least the fifteenth century, people
believed the short treatise had been written by the great roman orator himself,
but modern scholars have long been doubtful. It made sense that Cicero would
have been the book's author, since he was not only a famous master of
memorytechniques, he delievered his legendary speeches before the roman senate
from memory, but also (definitively) the author of anothe work called De
oratore, which is where the story of Simonides and the banquet hall first
appeared. That the story of Simonides, a fifth-century-BC greek, would have its
first written record in a book written four centuries afterward by a roman
reflects the fact that no memory treatises have survived from ancientGreece,
though some must certainly have been written. Since Cicero's recounting of the
incident was writteen so much later than Simonides supposedly remembered the
locations of the mangled bodies, nobody can say just how much the story is
myth. I'm willing to wager that quite a lot of it is mystical, but a marble
tablet dating to 264BC, two centuries before Cicero, but still two centuries
after the fact, and unearthed in the seventeenth century describes Simonides as
"the inventor of the system of memory aids." Still, it's hard to
believe that a technique like the art of memory was invented by one person at
one moment in time, in so perfectly poetic a manner. For all we know, Simonides
was merely the art of memory's codifier, or maybe just a particularly adept
practitioner who got tagged as its inventor. In any case, Simonides was a real
person, and a real poet, the first apparently to charge for his poems and also
the first to have called poetry "vocal training" and painting
"silent poetry". This is a particularly noteworthy turn of phrase for
Simonides to have coined because the art of memory that he is credited with
inventing is all about turning words into paintings in the mind.
c)
less a test of memory than of
creativity: The key thing is to compress as much information as possible into
any single well-formed image. The [Rhetorica] ad herennium gives the example of
a lawyer who needs to remember the basic facts of a case: "The prosecutor
has said that the defendant killed a man by poison, has charged that the motive
for the crime was an inheritance, and declared that there are many witnesses
and accessories to this act." To remember all this, "we shall picture
the man in question as lying ill in bed, if we know this person. If we do not
know him, we shall yet take someone to be our invalid, but not a man of the
lowest class, so that he may come to mind at once. And we shall place the
defendant at the bedside, holding in his right hand a cup, and in his left,
tablets, and on the fourth finger a ram's testicles." The bizarre image
would certainly be tough to forget, but it takes some decoding to figure out
exactly what it is you're supposed to be remembering. The cup is a mnemonic to
remind us of the poison, the tablets are a reminder of the will, and the ram's
testicles are a double entendre, reminding us of the witnesses with a verbal
pun on testes (testimony) and, since roman purses were often made out of the
scrotum of a ram, of the possibility of bribing them. Seriously.
d)
"memory is marveously
excited by images of women": Rossi, Logic and the Art of Memory, p.22.
6)
How to Memorise a Poem
a)
"judgement, citizenship,
and piety": Carruthers, The Book of Memory, p.11
b)
"worth a thousand in the
stacks": Draaisma, Metaphors of Memory, p.38
c)
the principle language in which
he wrote: Carruthers, The Book of Memory, p.88
d)
"core of his educational
equipment": Havelock, Preface to Plato, p.27
e)
Professional memorisers: My
favourite story about professional memorisers is told by SenecaTheYounger about
a wealthy roman aristocrat named CalvisiusSabinus, who gave up on trying to
learn the great works by heart and instead hired a coterie of slaves to do it
for him. "I never saw a man whose good fortune was a greater offense
against propriety. His memory was so faulty that he would sometimes forget the
name of Ulysses, or Achilles, or Priam... But nonetheless did he desire to
appear learned. So he devised this shortcut to learning: he paid fabulous
prices for slaves, one to know Homer by heart and nother to know Hesiod; he
also delegated a special slave to each of the nine lyric poets. You need not
wonder that he paid high prices for these slaves... After collecting this
retinue, he began to make life miserable for his guests; he would keep these
fellows at the foot of his couch, and ask them from time to time for versese
which he might repeat, and then frequently break down in the middle of a
word... Sabinus held to the opinion that what any member of his household knew,
he himself also knew.
f)
memorising the Vedas with
perfect fidelity: TheRigveda, the oldest of the Vedic texts, is over ten
thousand verses long.
g)
attached to poets as official
memorisers: After the introduction of Islam, Arabic mnemonists became known as
huffaz, or "holders" of the Koran and Hadith.
h)
memorised the oral law on
behalf of the jewish communish: For more on jewish mnemonists, see Gandz,
"The Robeh, or the Official Memorises of the Palestinian Schools."
i)
gathering armies, heroic
shields, challenges between rivals: Ong, Orality and Literacy, p.23, and Lord,
The Singer of Tables, pp. 68-98.
j)
that was about as far as his
inquiry into the matter went: As it turns out, this radical argument was
actually not new at all. In fact, it seems long ago to have been a widely
accepted notion that was somehow forgotten. The first century AD jewish
historian Josephus wrote, "They say that even Homer did not leave his
poetry in writing, but that it was transmitted by memory." And according
to a tradition repeated by Cicero, the first official redaction of Homer was
ordered by the athenian tyrant Peisistratus in the sixth century BC. As
people's connections to oral culture grew more distant over the centuries, the
idea of literature without writing became a harder and harder notion to digest,
and eventually just came to seem implausible.
k)
"composed wholly without
the aid of writing": For more, see Ong, Orality and Literacy, which is a
major source for this chapter.
l)
"Word for word, and line
for line": As reported by Parry's student AlbertLord in TheSingerOfTales,
p.27.
m) before trying to see it as a series of images: Carruthers argues in
a revised second editions of TheBookOfMemory that the memoriaverborum has long
been misunderstood by modern psychologists and scholars. It was not, in fact,
an alternative to rote, verbatim memorisation, she contends, and was never
meant to be used for memorising long stretches of text. Rather, she suggests,
it was for recalling single words and phrases, perhaps as long as a line of
verse, that one had trouble remembering accurately.
n)
the quandary of how to see the
unseeable: According to Pliny, it was Simonides who invented the art of memory
but Metrodorus who perfected it. Cicero called the man "almost
divine".
o)
balistarius: Alternatively,
Bradwardine's system allowed that you could reverse a syllable simply by
imagining an image upsidedown, so "ba-" could also just be an abbot
hanging from the ceiling.
p)
an abbot getting shot by a crossbow:
Or an abbot having a conversation with another abbot who was hanging from the
ceiling.
q)
"mangles or caresses St.
Dominic": Carruthers, TheBookOfMemory, pp.136-37.
r)
depraved carnal affections:
Yates, TheArtOfMemory, p.277.
7)
The End of Remembering
a)
that we have any knowledge of
it today: Manguel, AHistoryOfReading, p.60.
b)
a time when writing was
ascendant in Greece: In Socrates's day, about 10 percent of the greek world was
literate.
c)
"in material books to help
the memory": Carruthers, TheBookOfMemory, p.8.
d)
some stretching up to sixty
feet: Fischer, AHistoryOfWriting, p.128.
e)
papyrus reeds imported from
theNileDelta: Papyrus, the literal bulrushes of the bilical "ark of
bulrushes" that carried the baby Moses, was also called byblos, after
thePhonenician port of Byblos where it was exported, hence the "Bible".
In the second century BC, theHellenistic ruler of Egypt, PtolemyVEpiphanes, cut
off papyrus exports in order to curtail the growth of a rival library at
Pergamum in AsiaMinor (the word "parchment", derived from charta pergamena,
is a tribute to Pergamum, where the material was used extensively). From then
on, it became more common for books to be penned on stretched parchment or
vellum (a final piece of ancient book etymology: vellum, which was often made
from calfskin, shares the same root with "veal"), both of which
lasted longer and were more transportable than papyrus.
f)
how long to pause between
sentences: He created the high point, //, corresponding to the modern period,
the low point, //, corresponding to the modern comma, and the middle point, //,
a pause of intermediate length, which is probably closest to the modern
semicolon. The middle point vanished in theMiddleAges. The question mark didn't
appear until the publication of SirPhilipSydney's Aracadia in 1587, and the
exclamation mark was first used in theCatechismOfEdwardVI in 1553.
g)
GREECE: Small,
WaxTabletsOfTheMind, p.53. I've borrowed her idea of printing english in this
manner to show how hard it is to read.
h)
a phrase often repeated in
medieval texts: For more on reading scriptio continua, see Manguel,
AHistoryOfReading, p.47.
i)
extremly difficult to
sight-read: Indeed, much published modernhebrew, like the kind you'd find in a
newspaper in TelAviv, is written without vowels. Words generally have to be
recognised as units, rather than sounded out as they are in english. This slows
hebrew readers down. Native hebrew speakers who also read english can typically
read english translation faster than their own native language, even though it
takes about 40 percent more words to say the same thing in english as in
hebrew.
j)
"The stuff he knows made
him lick her": Sounds that can be sliced up in different ways to yield
different semantic meanings are known as oronyms. The "stuffy nose"
comes from Pinker, TheLanguageInstinct, p.160.
k)
a giant and very curious step
backward: Small, WaxTabletsOfTheMind, p.114.
l)
ánagignósko: Carruthers,
TheBookOfMemory, p.30.
m) ten billion volumes: Man, Gutenberg: How One Man Remade the World,
p.4.
n)
hadn't even been invented yet:
For more on the history of the display of books, see Petroski, TheBookOnTheBookshelf,
pp.40-42.
o)
still weighed more than ten
pounds: Illich, InTheVineyardOfTheText, p.112.
p)
around the same time that
chapter divisions were introduced:
TheComprehensiveconCorcordanceToTheHolyScriptures 1894, pp.8-9.
q)
reading the text all the way
through: Draaisma, MetaphorsOfMemory, p.34.
r)
"pre- and post-index
MiddleAges": Illich, InTheVineyardOfTheText, p.103.
s)
labyrinthine world of external
memory: A point made by Draaisma in MetaphorsOfMemory.
t)
"living concordance":
In the words of Carruthers, TheCraftOfThought, p.31.
u)
how to memorise playing cards:
Corsi, TheEnchantedLoom, p.21.
v)
"the letter A":
Translation quoted from Carruthers, TheBookOfMemory, p.114.
w) "intensive" to "extensive" reading: Darnton
attributes this idea to RolfEngelsing, who cites the transformation as
happening as late as the eighteenth century. TheKissOfLammourette, p.165.
x)
one of the most famous men in
all of europe: Yate's assessment in TheArtOfMemory, p.129.
y)
round, seven-tiered edifice:
Yates tried to reconstruct the blueprints for the theater in TheArtOfMemory.
z)
"and all the things that
are in the entire world": Rossi, LogicAndTheArtOfMemory, p.74.
aa) hundres, perhaps thousands, of cards were drated: Corsi,
TheEnchantedLoom, p.23.
bb)
over the course of a week: Much
of this information comes from DouglasRadcliffUlmstead 1972, "Giulio
Camillo's Emblems of Memory", YaleFrenchStudies 47, 47-56.
cc) the apotheosis of an entire era's ideas about memory: More recently,
virtual reality gurus have come to see Camillo's memory theater as the
historical forerunner of their entire field, and have traced its influence all
the way to theInternet (the ultimate universal memory palace) and theApple and
Windows OS, whose spatially arranged folders and icons are just a modern
reworking of Camillo's mnemonic principles. See PeterMatussek 2001, "The
Renaissance of the Theater of Memory," Janus8Paragrana 10, 66-70.
dd)
"riding a sea
monster": These translations are from Rowland, GiordanoBruno, pp.123-24.
ee) "a parrot on his head": Eco,
TheSearchForThePerfectLanguage, p.138.
ff)
nine pairs of cranial nerves:
There are now twelve known pairs of cranial nerves.
gg) almost a half million dollars: Fellows and Larrowe, LoisetteExposed,
p.217.
hh)
a memory course lasting several
weeks: Walsh and Zlatic 1981, "Mark Twain and the Art of Memory,"
AmericanLiterature 53, no.2, 214-31.
8)
The OK Plateau
a)
JohannWinkelmann: The
germanphilosopher GottfriedLiebniz also wore about a similar system in the
seventeenth century, but it's quite likely that the idea of making numbers more
memorable by turning them into words was discovered much earlier. The greeks
had an acrophonic system, wherein the first letter of each numeral could be
used to represent the number, so that, for example, P represented the number
five, for penta. In hebrew, each letter of the aleph bet corresponds to a
number, a quirk that Kabbalists have used to seek out hidden numerical meanings
in Scripture. Nobody knows whether these systems were ever used to memorise
numbers, but it's hard to imagine that some mediterranean businessman who ahd
to do mental accounting wouldn't have stumbled onto such an obvious idea.
b)
advance the sport of
competitive memory by a quantum leap: Ed gave mt eht following example of this
millenium PAOsystem at work: "The number 115 is Psmith, the stylish
character from the PGWoodhouse books (the P is silent, by the way, as in
'phthisis' or 'ptarmigan'). His actions is that he gives away an umbrella that
doesn't belong to him to a delicate young lady he sees stranded in a rainstorm.
The number 614 is BillClinton, who smokes but does not in hale marijuana, and
the number 227 is KurtGödel, the obsessive logician, who starved himself to
death by accident because he was too busy doing formal logic. Now, I can
conbime these three numbers to form nine-digit numbers that have anecdotal
coherence. For example, 115 614 227 becomes Psmith deigning to puff at, without
going so far as to inhale, formal logic. Now this is quite understandable since
Logic is, after all, an activity unsuited to the tru english gent. If you
change the ordering of the numbers, you get a different anecdote. The number
614 227 115 becomes BillClinton mortally forgetting to eat because he's too
busy pinching umbrellas for pretty young girls. This image will interact with
my pre-existing knowledge of Clinton's life, seeing as how he has gotten into
trouble before with the inappropriate handling of cylindrical objects for young
ladies, and the chance activation of this association, and the glimmer of
accompanying humour, serves to better the stability of the memory. See, each
possible combinations has its own dynamic feel and emotion, and very often,
interestingly, this will be the first thing in recall to pop into one's head,
before the other details slowly shuffle into view. I might also mention that
this works as an excellent idea-generator and constitutes sound afternoon
entertainment."
c)
lesser skaters work more on
jumps they've already mastered: JMDeakin and SCobley 2003, "A Search for
Deliberate Practice: An Examination of the Practice Environments in
Figureskating and Volleyball," in Expert Performance in Sports: Advances
in Research on Sport Expertise (edited by JLStarkes and KAEricsson).
d)
trying to understand the
expert's thinking at each step: KAEricsson, et al. 1993, "The Role of
Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance,"
PscyhologicalReview 100 no.3, 363-406.
e)
working through old games:
NCharness, RKrampe, UMayer 1996, "The Role of Practice and Coaching in
Entrepreneurial Skill Domains: An International Comparison of Life-Span Chess
Skill Acquisition," in Ericsson, TheRoadToExcellence, pp.51-80
f)
repeatedly flashed words 10 to
15 percent faster: Dvorak, TypewritingBehaviour.
g)
have a tendency to get less and
less accurate over the years: CABeam, EFConant, and EASickels 2003,
"Association of Volume and VolumeIndependent Factors with Accuracy in
Screening Mammogram Interpretation," JournalOfTheNationalCancerInstitue
95, 282-90.
h)
now acquired by your average
high school junior: Ericsson, TheRoadToExcellence, p.31.
9)
The Talented Tenth
a)
"no sensibilities, no
soul": Ravitch, LeftBack, p.21.
b)
"mental discipline":
Ravitch, LeftBack, p.61.
c)
inventory and invention:
Carruthers, TheCraftOfThought, p.11.
d)
a group of baseball fanatics:
GJSpillich 1979, "Text Processing of DomainRelated Information of
Individuals with High and Low Domain Knowledge,"
JournalOfVerbalLearningAndVerbalBehaviour 14, 506-22.
e)
either a witch trial or a piece
of correspondence: FrederickMHess, StillAtRisk, pp.1-2
10)
The Little Rain Man in All of
Us
a)
meet up with Daniel: I e-mailed
Daniel and asked if he'd be willing to meet with me. He wrote back, "I
normally request a fee for interview with the media." After I explained to
him why that would be impossible, he agreed to see me on the condition that I
mention the web site of his online tutoring compnay, optimnem.co.uk.
b)
its own separate syndrome:
Asperger's occurs in about one in two hundred people, and synesthesia probably
in about one in two thousand, but that may be an underestimate. Nobody knows if
both conditions have ever exited in the same person before, but assuming they
occur independently of each other, the laws of probability would suggest that
one in 400 000 people should have both synesthesia and Asperger's. That would
be about 750 people in the US alone.
c)
legally changed in 2001: Daniel
is fully open about having changed his name. He told me he didn't like the
sound of his old family name, Corney.
d)
more than nine thousand books
he has read at about ten seconds a page: It should be noted that this claimw as
never investigated in a peer-reviewed journal. I susepct this bit of hyperbole
might not have held up to careful scrutiny.
e)
it's a skill that can be
learned: Eventually my investigation of mental mathematics led me to a
remarkable book called TheGreatMentalCalculators:ThePsychology,Methods,AndLivesOfCalculatingProdigiesPastAndPresent
by a psychologist named StevenSmith. Smith dismisses the notion that there's
anything special about the brains of calculation prodigies, and insists that
their abilities derive purely from obssessive interest. He compares calculation
to juggling: "Any sufficiently diligent non-handicapped person can learn
to juggle, but the skill is actually acquired only by a handful of highly
motivated individuals." GeorgePackerBidder, one of the most renowed human
calculators of all time, even went so far as to express "a strong
conviction, that mental arithmetic can be taught, as easily, if not even with
greater facility, than ordinary arithmetic."
f)
would have been able to do as
well: at UCSD, Ramachandran and his graduate students administered three other
tests of Tammet's synesthesia. Using PlayDoh, they asked him to create 3D
models of twnety of his number shapes. When they gave him a suprise retest
twenty-four hours later, all of his shapes matched up. Then they "hooked
up" to an electrode to his fingers and flahsed him the digits of pi, but
with a few errant digits thrown in . They measured his galvanic skin response
and noticed that it jumped dramatically when the confronted a digit that didn't
belong.
g)
The UCSD researchers also administered the
Stroop test, another assessment commonly used to verify synethesia. First, they
gave Daniel three minutes to memorise a matrix of a hundred numbers. After five
minutes, he was able to recall sixty-eight of those numbers, and three days later
he still remembered them perfectly. Then they gave him three minutes to
memorise a matrix of a hundred numbers in which the size of the numbers on the
page corresponded to how Daniel described the numbers in his mind. Nines were
printed larger than other numbers and sixes were printed smaller. In this case,
he memorised fifty digits, and held onto all of them for three days. Finally,
they gave him a test where the numbers were printed in incongruous sizes. Nines
were printed small. Sixes were printed large. They wanted to see if it would
"throw Daniel off" his game. Did it ever. Daniel was only able to
remember sixteen numbers, and after three days, he could remember exaclty zero
of them. Ramachandran and his students put together a prepublication conference
poster on Daniel [en]titled "Does Synethesia Contribute to Mathematical
Savant Skills?" in which they refer to him by the pseudonym Arithmos. It
includes a caveat: "As in all cases like this, we need to consider the
fact that Arithmos may be performing almost all of his "mental feats"
via pure memorisation."
h)
they didn't find his: DBor,
JBillington, and SBaronCohen 2007, "Savant memory for digits in a case of
synaethesia and Asperger syndrome is related to hyperactivity in the lateral
prefrontal cortex." Neurocase 13, 311-319.
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